Table 1 Reported effect of different factors of observed blood pressure levels

Environment in which measurement is conducted

Cold room vs. comfortable room temperature [2]

⇑ 14 mmHg

⇑ 15 mmHg

Person being measured

Full bladder [3,4]

⇑ 10–15 mmHg, in case of uncomfortably distended bladder

⇑ 10 mmHg, in case of uncomfortably distended bladder ⇑ 40 mmHg

⇑ 50 mmHg

Heavy physical exercise before measurement [3]

⇓ 18–20 mmHg

⇓ 7–9 mmHg

Heavy meal before measurement [3]

⇓ 20 mmHg

⇓ 20 mmHg

Smoking before measurement [3]

⇑ 10 mmHg

⇑ 8 mmHg

Measurement procedure

Not resting at least 5 min before measurement [5]

⇑ 10–20 mmHg

⇑ 14 mmHg

Left arm vs. right arm [6]

⇓ 1–3 mmHg

⇑ 1 mmHg

Supine vs. sitting [7]

⇑ 3–10 mmHg

⇑ 1–5 mmHg

Back/feet unsupported vs. supported [4]

⇑ 5–15 mmHg

⇑ 6 mmHg

Arm unsupported during the measurement vs. arm supported [4,11]

⇑ 1–7 mmHg

⇑ 5–11 mmHg

Legs crossed vs. not crossed [8]

⇑ 5–8 mmHg

⇑ 3–5 mmHg

Talking during the measurement vs. silent [4,12]

⇑ 17 mmHg

⇑ 13 mmHg

Arm below heart level vs. arm at the heart level [9-11]

⇑ 10 mmHg

⇑ 10 mmHg

Cuff over clothing vs. cuff on bare arm [4]

⇑ 5 mmHg

not reported

Device

Cuff too large [11]

⇓ 10–30 mmHg

⇓ 10–30 mmHg

Cuff too small [11]

⇑ 3–12 mmHg, in obese persons

⇑ 2–8 mmHg, in obese persons

⇑ 30 mmHg

⇑ 30 mmHg

Diaphragm of stethoscope vs. bell (auscultation method used) [16,17]

⇓ 0–2 mmHg

⇓ 0–2 mmHg

Calibration error [18,19]

0–5 mmHg

0–5 mmH