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Fig. 1 | BMC Medical Research Methodology

Fig. 1

From: The alarming problems of confounding equivalence using logistic regression models in the perspective of causal diagrams

Fig. 1

Four typical causal diagrams with various confounding paths from simple to complex for the target causal path XY. a contains only one confounding path (XZTY). b contains two confounding paths (XZTY, XWY). Two confounding paths (XZTY, XWVY) that have another node (V) are included in (c). d has three confounding paths (XWY, XZWY and XWTY). X and Y indicates exposure and outcome respectively. T, Z, W and V are all confounders that can be observed. {c 0, c 1, c 2, c 3, c 4, c 5} are the effect parameters. For example, the effect of Z on T is c 0

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