Fig. 1

Exclusion cascade to assemble a heart failure-free cohort. First, we excluded those with anomalous data and those with missing follow-up. We then sequentially excluded suspected heart failure by excluding participants HF-specific medications (any of the following: digoxin in the absence of atrial fibrillation; angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor/angiotensin receptor blocker plus beta-blocker in absence of hypertension; carvedilol; spironolactone; loop diuretics including furosemide, bumetanide, or torsemide; and/or combination of hydralazine and nitrates). Abbreviations: AF Atrial fibrillation, HF Heart failure