Fig. 1

Overview of the simulated data. The mean X of E2 was computed depending on the level of reliability such that the desired effect size dz = 0.50 emerged given the mean and standard deviation of E1, the standard deviation of E2 and the correlation between E1 and E2. The same applies to the mean Z of C2. Accordingly, the effect size Y of d was variable across the levels of reliability. Note. Depicted arrows do not indicate causality or any direction of influence