Table 1 Characteristics of the 18 included studies
From: Instruments to measure fear of COVID-19: a diagnostic systematic review
Study | Instrument | Setting, target group, and participant description | Language | Test accuracy or validity methodsa |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Ahorsu et al. [25] | FCV-19S (Fear of COVID-19 Scale) – development paper | Iran N = 717 general population Mean age: 31.25 years (SD 12.68), Female: 42.0% COVID-19 characteristics: NR Socioeconomic: 8.9 years of education (SD 4.1) | Iranian, with English translation provided | Convergent validity (HADS Anxiety, HADS Depression, PVDS). Internal consistency reliability. |
Alyami et al. [38] | FCV-19S | Saudi Arabia N = 639 general population Mean age: 34.75 years (SD 11.80) Female: 42.1% COVID-19 characteristics: NR Socioeconomic: 70% university qualification; 50.2% employed, 15.6% unemployed, 27.4% student | Arabic | Convergent validity (HADS total score, HADS Anxiety, HADS Depression). Internal consistency reliability. |
Arpaci et al. [39] | COVID-19 Phobia Scale (C19P-S) – development paper | Turkey Study 1: N = 1250 general population Mean age: 37.53 years (SD = 16.94) Female: 61.2% COVID-19 characteristics: 0.4% positive Socioeconomic: 1.8% high, 21.3% middle-high, 57.5% middle, 14.6% low. Study 2: N = 2143 general population Mean age: 39.66 years (SD 16.87) Female: 60–3% COVID-19 characteristics: 0.5% positive Socioeconomic: 1.5% high, 20.2% middle-high, 60.1% middle, 12.7% middle-low, 12.7% low | Turkish, with English translation provided | Reference test: COVID-19 infection vs not. Internal consistency reliability. |
Bitan et al. [40] | FCV-19S | Israel N = 649 Mean age: NR Female: 84.8% COVID-19 characteristics: 52.9% unemployed during lockdown, 58.3% main career during COVID-19, 18.0% in risk group for COVID-19 mortality and 77.0% not in risk group, 4.1% direct contact with COVID-19 patient, 0.6% COVID-19 death in family Socioeconomic: 33.2% above average, 45.6% below average, 21.1% average | Hebrew | Convergent validity (DASS-21), internal consistency reliability. |
Chang et al. [41] | FCV-19S | Taiwan N = 400 adults receiving inpatient or outpatient treatment for psychiatric disorder Mean age: 46.91 years (SD 10.92) Female: 44.5% COVID-19 status: NR Socioeconomic: Mean education years 11.31 (SD 2.98) | Chinese | Internal consistency reliability. |
Feng et al. [42] | Scale of COVID-19 related psychological distress in healthy public (CORPD) – development paper | China N = 652 uninfected healthy people Mean age: NR Female: 67.3% COVID-19 status: NR Socioeconomic: 82.8% had college degree or above, 56.4% had a monthly income of more than 4000 yuan | Chinese | Convergent validity (SCL-90), internal consistency reliability: |
Haktanir et al. [43] | FCV-19S | Turkey N = 668 general population Mean age: NR Female: 72.0% COVID-19 status: NR Socioeconomic: 31.4% high, 61.4% middle, 7% low | Turkish | Convergent validity (BRS), internal consistency reliability. |
Huarcaya-Victoria et al. [44] | FCV-19S | Peru N = 832 general population Mean age: 38.37 years (SD 12.75) Female: 65.6% COVID-19 status: 68.4% without any symptoms of COVID-19, 21.0% with one symptom, 6.5% with two symptoms, 3.5% with three symptoms, 0.6% with four or more symptoms Socioeconomic: 76.4% with university education, 66.9% with formal employment | Spanish | Convergent validity (GAD-7, PHQ-9, IES-R), internal consistency reliability: |
Mejia et al. [45] | Fear Perception and Magnitude of the Issue (MED-COVID-19) – development paper | Peru N = about 400 public employees Mean age: NR Female: NR COVID-19 status: NR Socioeconomic: NR | Spanish, Portuguese | Internal consistency reliability |
Nguyen et al. [35] | FCV-19S | Vietnam N = 5423 university students Mean age: 22.0 years (SD 2.0) Female: 52.0% COVID-19 status: 18.9% with suspected symptoms, 81.0% without suspected symptoms Socioeconomic: 53.9% with very or fairly easy ability to pay for medication, 46.0% very or fairly difficult ablity to pay | Vietnamese | Reference test: AUC to distinguish GAD ≥8. Internal consistency reliability: |
Pang et al. [46] | FCV-19S | Malaysia N = 228 university students Mean age: NR Female: 71.1% COVID-19 status: NR Socioeconomic: 1.8% doctoral degree, 5.7% master degree, 56.1% bachelor degree, 26.8% diploma, 9.6% high school | Malay | Convergent validity (DASS-21), internal consistency reliability. |
Perz et al. [47] | FCV-19S | United States N = 237 university students Mean age: 30.3 years (SD 10.2) Female: 73.0% COVID-19 status: 29% know someone with COVID-19 symptoms Socioeconomic: 73% negative financial impact by COVID-19 or response | English | Convergent validity (GAD-7), internal consistency validity |
Reznik et al. [48] | FCV-19S | Belarus and Russia N = 850 university students/ graduates Mean age: 34.8 (SD 13.0) Female: 73.2% COVID-19 status: NR Socioeconomic: 65.4% university graduate, 28.4% university student, 6.2% primary or secondary school education | Russian | internal consistency reliability |
Sakib et al. [49] | FCV-19S | Bangladesh N = 8550 general population Mean age: 26.5 years (SD 9.1) Female: 44.0% COVID-19 status: NR Socioeconomic: 82.0% educated at tertiary level, 59.6% student, 3.7% unemployed | Bangal | Convergent validity (PHQ-9), internal consistency reliability |
Satici et al. [50] | FCV-19S | Turkey N = 1304 general population Mean age: NR Female: 70.3% COVID-19 status: 1.7% symptoms, 12.9% partial symptoms, 85.4% no symptoms Socioeconomic: 10.0% graduate degree, 79.8% bachelor degree, 3.8% associate degree, 5.0% high school, 1.4 less than high school | Turkish | Convergent validity (DASS-21, SWLS), internal consistency reliability |
Soraci et al. [51] | FCV-19S | Italy N = 249 general population Mean age: 34.50 years (SD 12.21) Female: 92% COVID-19 status: NR Socioeconomic: 58.7% university-level degree, 39% high school degree, 2.4% lower-level educational degree | Italian | Convergent validity (HADS, SMSP-A), internal consistency reliability |
Tsipropoulou et al. [52] | FCV-19S | Greece N = 2970 general population Mean age: NR Female: 72.5% COVID-19 status: NR Socioeconomic: 45.4% university degree, 29.8% high school degree, 1.5% less than high school. 8.9% health care provider. | Greek | Convergent validity (PHQ-9, GAD-7), internal consistency reliability |
Zolotov et al. [36] | FCV-19S | Israel N = 370 university students Mean age: 25.2 (SD 3.1) Female: 78.1% COVID-19 status: NR Socioeconomic: NR | Hebrew | Reference test: convergent validity to single items regarding COVID-19-related depression, anxiety, nervousness, loneliness, and exhaustion. Internal consistency reliability: |