Table 1 The Paradigms of Research: Principal Features

Epistemology

Scientific, Evidence-based

Social Scientific, Qualitative

Multi-Method, Pragmatism

Fluid, Creative, Exploratory

Data type

Statistical, Precise, Explanatory

Linguistic, Descriptive, Interpretive

Combined (Statistical and Linguistic)

Mobile, Shared, Emergent

Research-subject relationship

Objective, Standardized

Subjective, Personalized

Pluralist, Versatile

Democratic, Equalizing, Adaptive

Researcher position

Inquisitor, Realist

Observer, Interpreter

Witness, Aggregator

Partner, Listener

Methodology

Randomised Controlled Trial, Before and After Study, Time Series, Interrupted Time Series, Cohort Study, Systematic Review

Ethnography, Case Study, Phenomenology, Grounded Theory, Meta-Ethnography, Meta-Narrative

Mixed-Methods

(Verbal, Visual and Numerical), Meta-Synthesis

Performative, Science-Social Science, Ethnographic, Poetic Representation

Methods

Scientific Measurements and Computational Techniques

Focus Groups,

Interviews, Open-ended Questionnaires/Proformas, Observations, Participant Observations

Quantitative and Qualitative Data that can be Synthesized

Multiple methods from other paradigms, plus Technological Data (Smartphones, Apps), Social Media Data, Performance, Biographies and Photographs, Everyday Objects, Obscure Phenomena, Auto-biography

Data Characteristics

Set, Precise, Population-based, Explanatory

Interrogative, In-depth, Rich, Patterned

Dichotomous, Situational, Pragmatic, Triangulated

Nuanced, Ambiguous, Complex, Anomalous, Flexible