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Fig. 1 | BMC Medical Research Methodology

Fig. 1

From: Change analysis for intermediate disease markers in nutritional epidemiology: a causal inference perspective

Fig. 1

Hypothetical directed acyclic graph with three-wave panel data. \(X, Y, Z\) denote the exposure, outcome, and covariate variables of interest, respectively. \(U\) is the unobserved time-invariant individual characteristic. The subscripted numbers indicate the wave of the longitudinal data. The directed arrow implies the causal relation from the cause pointing to the outcome. The Greek alphabet or number on the arrow represents the causal effect of the path

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BMC Medical Research Methodology

ISSN: 1471-2288

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